Prone to Hypnosis

extreme professional handling. This author recommends that hypnosis sessions absolutely either be recorded or detailed transcriptions are maintained. This author can share a little about personal experience of hypnosis and its positive outcomes in therapy. For discussion today, one must outline the measures to know that false memories are not being implanted and tactics to avoid that. Clues to identification of false memories exist and will be discussed.

One only needs to know a little bit about me to recognize that I spend a lot of my daily time in altered states of consciousness and hypnotic-like states. It's not that my reality isn't pleasant- I have built myself a great everyday life. Part of me is more concerned to habitate in my inner-mind more often than the physical world. I can say this with certainty due to my behaviors to get me out of my physical world. My behaviors that get me into my brain or elsewhere and away from the physical world include writing, being artsy, dancing, sleeping, meditating, day dreaming, lucid dreaming, driving on auto-pilot (habituation), walking on auto-pilot, re-living conversations and making them even funnier in my mind editing, and if were not so expensive, hypnosis. While my altered states of consciousness is usually driven by myself, in hypnosis another party is usually in the driver's seat. There are issues of trust and risk to this, including the consequence of false memory implantation if not following a strict protocol that I observed from personal experience.

I first learned that I was highly suggestible to hypnosis while an undergraduate student. We had had a magician/ hypnotist come to an event and very easily I became an audience member “put under.” Fast forward to a few years ago, summer 2007 when I was struggling with a work presentation and I used this little fact to my advantage. I needed to know a work presentation that was an eight-page document and for the life of me, could not memorize it under my time constraints to execute its delivery. In great panic, I researched and found an OSU professors of Psychology and Hypnotist. In a series of about 4 hypnosis sessions, I was hypnotized to help my memory into learning my presentation-all eight pages.

In speaking a little about from my experience and to the idea of implanting false memories, it could very easily happen. Under hypnosis, the client is in a very vulnerable state and open to suggestion. A Hypnotist must work very hard not to suggest or implant any ideas foreign to the patient.

During hypnosis, a client may find blockages and verify them with the Hypnotist. For example, during some of my hypnosis, I had blockages to the actual hypnosis sessions resembling many things like a free-association exercise. I had had a grandmother, a dog, a baby, and the presence of a yellow energy burst all stymieing the effectiveness of my treatment. The Hypnotist and I had to free these entities from myself in order to get onto the hypnosis. Should that Hypnotist not be so well trained, he or she could have implanted their ideas or entities as to who or what is a blockage to the work at hand.

Furthermore, I learned from the professional protocol of the Hypnotist I saw what techniques to employ so as not to implant false memories and suggestions. First, the hypnotist must never know anything about the incoming client. One may need to even assume an alias. This is especially true in small towns. It's almost like making an appointment with a fortune-teller. They too don't want to know the client before-hand. Very minimal interaction other than the goal of the hypnosis session must be in place so as not to bias the professional to the potential of human error by presuming things about the patient and placing a projection onto the patient.

Also, a Hypnotist that's not very careful in presumptive questions could implant a false memory. A lot of times, behind a question is an implicit expectation. It could be like this: “ Mary, being that you are working full-time and a mother of two, it makes sense that you were stressed out frequently?” As one can infer from this example, the Hypnotist's question may infer to Mary that she perhaps should assume that she is stressed instead of allowing her own synopsis of how she's feeling. Being that she's presumably “under” in this hypnotherapy session, the Hypnotist may have very innocently though ignorantly just hypnotized Mary to being stressed when she may not, in fact, be all that stressed given what's on her plate.

Likewise for the discussion at hand, children seek and want to perform for the positive reinforcement of adults. Hypnotists and adults involved with the court not only can implant expectations, but by also creating a court prosecution conducive to “leading the witness” for the intended outcome of the defendant/prosecutor is extremely relevant in questiong tactics/techniques. In fact, it's known in other court cases, such as a domestic assault case, that prosecution has been known to create questions that dehumanize the victim/survivor in jury cases to sway juror's perceptions. ( Personal Communication, Audited class on Women's Studies, OSU Winter quarter 2006). (Belknap and Dee, 2000)

To ward off any chances of false memory implantation of suggestions, Hypnotists must be vigilant in monitoring their communication and intent in sessions. A tool that could be used would be either a video recorder or audio recorder. Much training would be needed to relieve the Hypnotist of asking leading questions. This is true of counselor-techniques too. ( Personal Communication, Dr. Linda Hall, Interpersonal Sensitivity classes, IUP summer 2002). Counselors and psychologists will spend many class sessions perfecting techniques accordingly. (Conte, 2009). Should also, there ever be a need to look back at hypnosis sessions, the Hypnotist would have the video or sound recording sessions archived to know if they unknowingly implanted a suggestion or expectation tangential to goals during hypnosis.

In the event that one's curious, not only did my hypnosis “cure” me to memorize my 8-page presentation for work, but I also was hypnotized to no longer have road rage, and to fall asleep the moment my head hits the pillow. Yes, hypnosis can be a magically, beautiful thing in the proper hands.

References

Belknap., J., and Dee., G., (2000) Factors Related to Domestic Violence Court Dispositions in a Large Urban Area: The Role of Victim/Witness Reluctance and Other Variables, Final Report (Available from U.S. Department of Justice)

Conte., Christian., (2009). Advanced Techniques for Counseling and Psychotherapy. New York, New York: Springer Publishing Co.

Histrionic Personality Disorder (HPD)

Blanche Dubios in Street Car Named Desire, Scarlett O' Hara in Gone with the Wind, and the Bette Midler character in Beaches are films that help illustrate the strong personality disorder of HPD revealed in their main characters. While these characters exemplify HPD quite well, we may also look to many famed celebrities that may or may not exemplify HPD including Madonna, Angelina Jolie, Drew Barrymore, and perhaps even the late Marilyn Monroe.

HPD may be quite difficult to differentiate from some other personality disorders including narcissism and more rampant in our celebrities and in our friends that just need more time to be less self-involved on this earth. To help understand HPD over other disorders is one key component; it is the sole personality disorder where the disorder is explicitly linked to the patient's appearance. Understandably, better than average appearances may comorbidize to HPD.

For further assistance in identifying traits of HPD the DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000) has the following eight characteristics for HPD:

Center of Attention

Sexually Seductive

Shifting Emotions

Physical Appearance

Speech Style

Dramatic Behaviors

Suggestibility

Overestimation of Intimacy

Two qualities that may be the most difficult to treat within HPD would be the narcissism aspect and the fact that extroverted behavior is much more valued in our society. Engaging in the discussion of celebrities and narcissim and how the media reinforces negative messages is celebrity addiction specialist Dr. Drew Pinsky. In a recent publication, The Mirror Effect, Dr. Pinsky creates a dialogue about how culturally the media holds up some very destructive people as role models and celebrities thus warping our sense of normal, acceptable, and even healthy behaviors.

Narcissism aside, the taming of the extrovert and the center of attention in HPD actually may be not favorable at all to the patient. In many settings extroverted individuals are preferred time and time again in matters of social networks, promotions in the work environment, in school performance, and other situations.

To best treat HPD, perhaps adressing aspects of the most hurt towards the self and others is where the focus should reside. For instance, psychotherapy may address the denial and defense mechanisms put on by the patient acting within the constraints of HPD. As the patient lets down these defenses with their identification, HPD's attributes will subside as they get closer to being their true authentic self rather than the shell of ego defense of HPD pathology. As ego defenses are minimized, the capacity of the tru self emerges perhaps healed enough to enter into true intimacy of friendship or more over sustained psychotherapy intervention.

References:

American Psychological Association. (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders, Fourth Addition, Text Revised. Washington, D.C.

Pinsky, D., Young, M. (2009) The Mirror Effect:How Celebrity Narcissism is Seducing America. London, U.K. Harper Collins.

Delusions Everyday

Delusions and hallucinations are part of our daily lives. Many religions offer the delusion that a second coming of Christ, or apocalypse is eminent and it is usually not contradicted within the follower's belief system. Non-Christian religions have a similar answer to the Omega in that a prophet will be chosen to lead the way to the afterlife and this delusion holds true in beliefs whether it's prooven or disprooven. So it seems delusion is a way of life or a means to explain the end for many. This is known as a subset of delusions namely nihilistic delusion, meaning delusion about the end and also religious, grandiose delusions (APA, 2000). This discussion in religion and spirituality delusions may comfort any clients who may be facing a diagnosis of schizophrenia with delusions by relating how billions came into their beliefs or it may also open the door to existential therapy in those that are well and have come to recognize thinking or beliefs that by all objective means is known as deluded. Tread delicately on the distinction that their delusion may not be reinforced by the masses.

Hallucinations is something completely different from delusions in that sensory experiences are seemingly self-contained within an individual and experientially, it's a party of one, unlike delusions, which many can believe and experience. Good communication coupled with a vivid imagination is the only way someone can share one person's hallucination and even then it's second-hand account. Even in partaking in illegal substances, one's hallucination will be different from another's even if they took the same drug, at the same time, under the same circumstances. Each person's chemisty launches his or her trip. Questions pertaining to drug usage or abuse are essential in persons presenting in therapy with claims of delusions and hallucinations. Other clients presenting for help that may claim experience with hallucinations are those that are ill and carrying a fever, those that have not had adequate sleep, those in detox, and those with extreme imaginations or appear to be manic or coming off of mania. Given these, the most important thing to seek in client's reporting is the change in behavior and personality. That change is where the most truth resides for proper diagnosis.

This author is of the experience that certain guided imagery exercises during hypnosis can result in hallucinations and can be present in totally healthy clients, though within the safety of a psychologist and somewhat guided in a process of suggestion and perception. While under hypnosis images appear very real at the slightest suggestion and as the relaxation and guided imagery envelopes the client, it is controled by the therapist and one does reside in a different reality making suggestion all the more probable to whatever goal one's hypnosis aims to achieve. When “going under” is difficult, this author recalls hallucinations of colors and entities from her past blocking the hypnosis and they were skillfully called away by the hypnotist to get back to effective imagery while “going under”. Another difference being sometimes the client remembers the happenings of hypnotic hallucinations while others are suggested to forget their hallucinations inspired in hypnosis.

Though hallucinations are tandem with the stigma of schizophrenia and psychosis, this writer urges one to consider the totality of how delusions and hallucinations can present themselves and be within normal ranges of functionality. Indeed, many persons with schizophrenia can live productive lives though their internal life is of a greater experience than others. Still to be uncovered are issues around dopamine level differences (Seeman et al. 2005), whether persons with schizophrenia with high emotional intelligence can adapt their inner-world to the finesse needed in social situations (Green, 1999) and the genetic heritage of persons with schizophrenia.

References:

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

Butcher, J. N., Mineka, S. & Hooley, J. L. (2010). Abnormal Psychology (14^th ed.). Boston, MA:

Green, M. (1999). Should schizophrenia be treated as a neurocognitive disorder. National Institute of Mental Health, Oxford University Press, U.K.

Seeman, P., Weinshenker, D., Quirion, R., Srivastava, K., Bhardwaj, K., Grandy, K., Premont, T., Sotnikova, D., (2005). Dopamine supersensitivity correlates with D2High states, implying many paths to psychosis Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

Gold Digging Psychology

Gold digger (Urban dictionary, 2010):

“A girl that is only with a man because she wants his money; she'll spend it on jewelery, clothes, spa treatments, etc. Once he goes broke she'll go for another man that is rich or just plain financially stable.”

Popular culture has its many villains including gold-diggers. What may be coined as an evolutionary instinct has become a societal parasite to affluent men. In more primitive cultures it is widely accepted that women are biologically and therefore sexually motivated to seek out men that can provide to ensure that offspring will not only flourish but survive. Yet somehow, in modern society the woman as “gold-digger” is a villianesse. Aspects of why modern woman is motivated towards affluent provision will be discussed.

Maslow theorized on human motivation. Basic needs must be met before one moves onward to higher-order intellectual needs such as fulfillment in one's work or purpose in life. While that makes for a great theory on motivation, it doesn't illustrate much in what biological drives are inherent or perhaps intrinsic to get onward to the top of the hierarchy of needs. Indeed, if there might be a shortcut, why not take it? Placing morality aside, enter the idea of the gold digger.

The 1989 study conducted by Buss interprets a widely-accepted cultural value that transcends over 10,000 men and women across almost all continents. In this sexual motivation study it was found time and again that men highly valued good looks and limited sexual experience, while women sought good financial prospects and attributes of ambition and industriousness. (Rajecki et al., 1991; Sprecher et al.; 1994). Should this sexual motivational theory be considered valid given the scope, magnitude, and cross-cultural findings? It appears that beyond cultural norms, both women and men are hard-wired to seek certain, fundamental biological characteristics in their mate choosing practices.

Furthermore, why is their a cultural distaste for men to seek out or prefer women of youth? Why is it even worse that women seek out men that provide? Indeed, perhaps inherent to American, individualist cultural norms we actually are indoctrinated to vilify and despise those that cannot provide for themselves.

This is largely a hypothesis as to why women as gold diggers are despised more so than the male that prefers his young mate. He ideally has provision for both he and the mate he attracts. Should the woman have a scarcity of her own individual providings, her motivation and morality is suspect. Indeed this cultural condition wouldn't have as much stigma to it if the playing field for economic provision were more level. “As of 2010, men continue to out earn women in virtually every occupation for which data is available.” (National Committee on Pay Equity, 2010 p. 2)

References

Buss, D. M. (1989). Sex differences in human mate preferences; Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12, 1-14.

National Committee on Pay Equity. (2010) Document retrieved 5/17/2010 at:http://www.pay- equity.org/

Rajecki, D. W., Bledsoe, S. B., & Rasmussen, J. L., (1991) Successful personal ads: Gender differences and similarities in offers, stipulations, and outcomes. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 12, 457-469.

Gestalt of it all

 Gestalt psychology could actually be better understood if one considers it an unspoken language. The mind wants to organize stimulus to fit into a concept or a something-or-other that is a commonly known “whole”. (Goodwin, 2008) Due to the fact that our eyesight is quite adept at taking in several images all at once, it is no surprise that we wish to input data in a holistic-manner. It also helps that we learn through relationships, interaction, and meaningfulness relative to ourselves. The interrelatedness forces us to invent language with others, so that we can share a stimulus, it's recognition, it's utility with others. Once we find the need to speak, that's where Gestalt leaves off and linguistics set in.

An example of early Gestalt cognition is with a mother that is showing her infant pictures in a picture book in attempts to educate on language. How does the Mom show the child not to just look at the parts, lines, colors of what the infant sees in the picture but to take in the whole picture? Would Gestalt early-childhood experts say that at a developmental age, this is innate or learned (Bell, 1991)? It takes time and an understanding of mind development appropriateness for the lessons to be fruitful. Then as the picture comes into focus, only then can the auditory task of learning sound associated with the picture forms a wrinkle in the grey matter of the infant's brain. Indeed, the baby has to be able to distinguish form, to understand the object beyond it being a flat page in a book, and to have it fit into a schema of whatever the picture comes to represent as a whole. It also must not be too abstract, or foreign of an idea for an infant to grasp.

What else may be examples of Gestalt that we take for granted? In particular, this student thinks of outter-space as a Gestalt-appropriate example. So do authors Woldt and Toman, 2005, Gestalt therapists considering space and aeronautics. We seek to understand the holistic-approach of what outter-space is by the planets, the stars, the solar system. We always want to categorize things into a neat little box for our minds labeled “NASA”. We have tools of understanding light as a property to distinguish how far Earth is from an asteroid belt but still are in awe of what the big picture universe really is all about. We are equal parts curious and frustrated. When we focus in too intently, we lose the greater meaning of the Universe, although we do continue to examine details like Earth, in the hopes that data yielded from Earth may reflect data indicative to understanding the larger whole, the universe. We must always be vigilant not to lose the forest from the trees and Gestalt approaches affirm that we are naturally wired to see more than just the sum parts, but a dynamically integrated outterspace. How we perceive outter space through Gestalt principles may be our greatest asset, or perhaps our greatest limitation in framing how we approach scientific unknowns.

A final example of Gestalt may be existential inquiry. We often holistically look at the meaning of life to inform on a mere moment of sadness or misery. We understand that there is much good and bad in life. We tell ourselves that in order to recognize good, we must know evil. We cognitively think in dualities first before we think of more complex interrelated theory about how everything in life is no longer black and white but shades of grey. We evolve out of dualism into Gestalt, that holistically everything that is is there is wholly, cleverly placed by Divine design. Gestalt in this capacity, is a testimony of faith. These ideas became the framework of not only Philosophers like Sartre and Heiddegger but laid the foundation for existential therapy. The therapy addresses being a lone if not interrelated, in a dualistic sense. As one matures, they may realize that spiritually they are integrated. (Deurzen, 2002). Gestalt in a manner of faith may be a goal but not the innate state of spiritual well-being.

We may be perpetually tripped-up if our innate ability to see things holistically makes us incapable of viewing things in a different way. Let's suggest that Gestalt may be a hindrance. Perhaps we would know more about language, existentialism, and space if we were able to focus on details first. Let's say, we approached all scholarly inquiry through focus on the details first rather than the whole. What would that entail and would that framing be more advantageous? Gestalt reached it's demise when it failed to describe things scientifically. Description will only legitimize ideas so far.

References

Bell, N. (1991) Gestalt imagery:a critical factor in language acquisition. The Orton Dyslexia Society. San Luis Obispo, CA.

Deurzen, E. (2002). Existential counseling and psychotherapy in practice. London. Sage Publications.

Goodwin, C.J. (2008). A history of modern psychology. Introducing psychology's history. NJ, John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Woldt, A. & Tolman,S. (2005) Gestalt therapy : history, theory, and practice. London. Sage Publications.

Client-centered therapy

Carl Rogers placed the client at center stage in humanistic therapy. Accompanying the client is the approach that with highly-developed listening, empathy, and interpersonal skills, this type of client-centered therapy can be just as helpful to clients as any other therapies (Rogers, 1980). And for the first time, feelings matter as they are-symbolic expressions of meaning for the value of self (Whelton, 2007).

Largely created in the 1950s, theorists most conducive to this approach include the groundwork of Abraham Maslow and the true father of humanistic therapy- Rogers. Central to client centered therapy approaches are certain virtues. They include that an emphasis will remain on the individual as capable through self-awareness and consciousness of their experiences, that a therapist will provide unconditional, positive regaard, and that the focus will be on the human potential and not limitations through positivity. The enormously impactful progress this type of approach has with clients far outweighs anything negative opponents offer in the dialogue of best practice approaches.

While Maslow placed motivation and the dynamic body of work surrounding motivation as his offering to the field, Rogers holds up each individual in all their untapped potential as the core of humanistic therapy. Roger's expounded on the idea that clients and everyone at large struggles with the

several versions one holds of the “self”. Rogers largely came into his own during his teaching tenure at several universities. Alongside teaching, his prolific writings act as his own therapy as he came to reflect on what practices and what part of his personality came to reveal the elements of therapy that resonates with this writer.

In therapy approaches, this writer would wish to talk with clients most about their motivations and how many “selves” they have including how far they are from their ideal self. We would work together in multiple arenas trying to motivate and progress towards their best self. This can encompass a lot of areas to work on or could be as simple as helping someone to live their authentic life. Positive messages about themselves, their abilities, and how they seek joy while becoming their authentic self would be my mission with all patients. Tests from positive psychology would be utilized in learning more about their strengths, personality, and happiness level.

Certain limitations to this therapy exists for those that are deeply saddened, angry, or addicted. Client-centered therapy can address these issues but this writer regrets that other therapies may need to take more formal actions first in getting to a better homeostasis before working on the higher pyramid aspects of the hierarchy of human needs implicit to humanistic therapies. An addict must be sober and in a healthy body before higher order needs can be met as their addiction robs them of truly being in their god-provided authentic body and mind.

Those with extremes in moods and personalities must know what they are to overcome and have strategies in place with baser issues before addressing higher order needs. This writer can though, see client-centered practices relevant to all therapies as it's never wrong to work at anytime on being the best self, reconciling mutliple selves, and getting to know oneself best in any capacity. Though this therapy appears to be much more popular in Europe (Butcher et al, 2007), it is making a case for usage again at positive psychology continues to catch on in consciousness to the promise of all the good things that can happen through living a joyful authentic life.

References

Butcher, J. N., Mineka, S. & Hooley, J. L. (2010). Abnormal Psychology (14^th ed.). Boston, MA:

Rogers, C.R. (1980). A way of being. Boston, MA. Houghton Mifflin

Helminiak, D. (2009). Common Humanity and Global Community: Lonerganian Specification of Maslowian Promise. Paper submitted for the 117^th APA Annual Convention. American Psychological Association.Washington, DC.

Maslow, A., (1987). Adapted from Personality and Motivation. Pearson Education

Boston, MA: Pearson Custom Publishing

Whelton, W. (2007). The Enduring Legacy of Carl Rogers: Clinical Philosophy and Clinical Science. PsycCRITIQUES, 52(12), doi:10.1037/a0007177.

Comorbidity in Psych

Definitions:

Comorbity-diseases or conditions that coexist with a primary disease but they also stand on their own as specific diseases (Debra Ranzella, R.N., 2008).

Co-occuring-formerly known as dual diagnosis or dual disorder, co-occurring disorders describe the presence of two or more disorders at the same time. For example, a person may suffer substance abuse as well as bipolar disorder. (Psychology Today, 2010).

Dual diagnosis-often used interchangeably with the terms co-morbidity, co-occurring illnesses, concurrent disorders, comorbid disorders, co-occurring disorder, dual disorder, and, double trouble. Professional literature has used a confusing array of terms and acronyms to describe co-occurring disorders or a dual diagnosis (Dual Recovery Anonymous, 2010).

Understanding that every single person on this earth has a different experience takes a lot of accounting into consideration in the lens of psychology.To better understand psychology, it may be helpful to think first in medical terms and situations. When we think of comorbidity in a medical framing we can attribute a lot of cause and effect and multiple diseases within a person's lifestyle habits. For instance a person with heart disease will have had a pattern with artereoscleurosis, with what their diet is, with weight factors, with what exercise they can and cannot do, and with what genes where their genetic lottery. We see that there is a proliferation of consequence within diagnosis and very educated, logical, and rational pathways of thinking will expand on a person's condition (Cloninger, 2002). Within the primary disgnosis of heart disease we see various comorbidity not only in disease but in overall conditions that contribute greatly to the primary disease. All add up to the big picture. One cannot be looked out without contributing or overlapping into the other. Thus, the dual diagnosis issue is at hand not just in medical orientations but relevant in psychology as well.

In psychology recently it was stated that virtually 60% of personality disorders have something co-morbid lurking in the diagnosis and those critical of these figures claim that there's inprocise diagnosing occuring with having such a high rate of co-morbidity (Kessler et al., 1994). This author argues that when we think in a medical orientation about accounting for overall, holistic well-being in a person's behavior and thinking, it's actually more likely that we would diagnose more as we see that “a” causes “b” and may cause “c” but may also vary from person to person. Not everything is a straight line. Rather human nature is unique and each person's chemistry may present an interesting sub-set of symptoms when thinking about an over-arching disorder or many disorders.Thus the web is woven, quite complexly in terms of comorbidity.

In treating clients, there's a need to identify the illness or substance abuse that is more threatening to the safety and security of the client. This is where an immediate intervention starts. An extreme psychotic episode can be just as threatening as addiction in an extreme situation. It's important to take stock of habits of extremes in both substance abuse and psychosis in initial assessments.

While proper diagnosis is needed, it appears that accuracy in dual-diagnosis is elusive in the field. This author wishes to circle back to the idea of improcise language can lead to misdiagnosis. Culturally there is an issue that everyone wants quickly diagnosed and treated. Insurance companies want clients in and out like the McDonalds drive-through line.

Being able to be given time to critically synthesize the DSM-IV-TR classifications and it's rules of diagnosis within a disease but also within the nuance of the individual with unique symptoms is no easy task. Dual diagnosis doesn't have to be the villian it's portrayed to be. For instance, with generalized anxiety disorder a client may not only have GAD but may medically complain of muscle tension (Levyberg, 2009). This medical framing speaks to the parallels of psychology in that we are what we think and do. If we think anxiously, then of course our body is anxious as manifested in muscle tension. If one drinks alcohol they depress themselves not only with their drink but with their thoughts as the alcohol paints the picture in their mind's eye. Thus we have dual diagnosis alcoholism and depression situated within bad coping skills.

References:

Cloninger, C. R. (2002). Implications of comorbidity for the classification of mental disorders: the need for a psychobiology of coherence. In Psychiatric Diagnosis and Classification Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.

Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., Zhao, S.,(1994) .Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM- III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey.Archives of General Psychiatry

Levyberg, A., Sandell, R., & Sandahl, C. (2009). Affect-focused body psychotherapy in patients with generalized anxiety disorder: Evaluation of an integrative method. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration

Definitions References:

Dual-Diagnosis Recovery (2010). retrieved 12/16/2010 at

http://www.draonline.org/

Manzella, D. (2008). retrieved 12/16/2010 at :http://diabetes.about.com/od/glossaryofterms/g/comorbid.htm

Psychology Today. (2008). retrieved 12/16.2010 at http://www.psychologytoday.com/conditions/co- occurring-disorders